附件：中国木本植物综合保护10年实践回顾.pdf

Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Global Ecology and Conservation journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gecco Safeguarding China’s native trees – A review of integrated conservation practices between 2008 and 2020 Joachim Gratzfeld a, *, 1, Xiangying Wen b, c, 1, Meirion Jones a, Malin Rivers a a Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3BW, United Kingdom China Office of Botanic Gardens Conservation International, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 723 Xingke Road, Guangzhou, Tianhe District 510650, China c South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 723 Xingke Road, Guangzhou, Tianhe District 510650, China b A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: China GlobalTreeSearch Global Tree Assessment (GTA) Global Trees Campaign (GTC) Integrated tree conservation Population recovery As part of an integrated initiative to compile the world’s tree species (GlobalTreeSearch), assess their conservation status (Global Tree Assessment, GTA) and devise practical conservation action for threatened taxa (Global Trees Campaign, GTC), this review provides a synthesis of the collaborative efforts carried out in China under this framework between 2008 and 2020 by the botanic garden community, the forestry sector, other conservation organisations, and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). Using GlobalTreeSearch and GTA data, the analysis reveals that China boasts some 4886 native tree species of which virtually half, 2429, are endemic to the country. With nearly one in five Chinese tree species threatened, conservation action has been implemented under the umbrella of the GTC for some hundred taxa. This included devel­ opment of best-practice in propagation, population recovery in situ and creation of ex situ con­ servation collections as an insurance policy for the future. Although urgency prevails to scale up conservation action for many more species at the brink of extinction, the GTC offers an ecolog­ ically more nuanced conceptual framework for application in China’s large-scale tree planting and reforestation efforts. This integrated approach is especially opportune now, at a time when China is reviewing the effectiveness and plans for expansion of its protected area system, but is also compelled to increase forest cover for carbon capture and economic growth. The GTC pro­ vides a comprehensive method to ascertain planting the ‘right tree in the right place’, but also ‘for the right purpose at the right time and with the right care’. 1. Introduction 1.1. A nation of remarkable plant diversity and endemism China is among the 17 megadiverse countries in the world as defined by the main criterion of endemism, first at species level (≥ 5000 endemic plant species) and then at higher taxonomic organisation including genus and family (Mittermeier et al., 1997; UNEP-WCMC, 2014). With over 36150 higher plant species of which half are endemic to the nation (Ren, 2020), China ranks third as to plant diversity, after Brazil and Colombia (CBD (n.d.)). This status is mirrored also in the country’s wealth of tree species. Based on data * Corresponding author. E-mail address: joachim.gratzfeld@bgci.org (J. Gratzfeld). 1 These authors have contributed equally to this work. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02101 Received 25 January 2022; Received in revised form 8 March 2022; Accepted 22 March 2022 Available online 26 March 2022 2351-9894/© 2022 Botanic Gardens Conservation International. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. recorded by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI)’s GlobalTree Portal, there are 4886 tree species native to China representing nearly 8.3% of the world’s tree diversity (58173 species) (BGCI, 2021). Some 2429 tree species – virtually 50% – are endemic to China, establishing the country after Brazil, Madagascar and Australia among the four nations with highest tree endemism (Beech et al., 2017; Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 2021). However, Gatti et al. (2022) and Qian et al. (2019) highlight that there are many more tree species yet to be discovered. Therefore, the number of tree species found in China is likely to increase as new discoveries are being made. 1.2. National policy frameworks of key importance for plant conservation As one of the world’s nations with the most threatened biodiversity (Wang et al., 2020), China was one of the first countries to sign the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992. Since then, China has been developing and implementing a wealth of scientific research, practical in and ex situ conservation programmes, environmental advocacy campaigns, as well as new policies and laws to safeguard and restore biodiversity. These efforts continue to be realised through the implementation of the China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 2011–2030 (MEP, 2010), and a series of other policy, legal and technical frameworks including the Overall Plan of the Ecological Civilization System Reform (Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, the State Council of China, 2015). This plan requires that “fresh air, clean water, beautiful mountains and rivers, fertile land, and biodiversity are the ecological environments necessary for human survival”. Moreover, with the introduction of the “Beautiful China” strategy included in the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016–2020), China has initiated a profound change and shift from a focus on quantity to quality of growth and the environment by 2035, a complex and long-term venture involving multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral efforts (Fang et al., 2020). Encompassing more than 18% of the total land area, China has undertaken significant steps in recent years to strengthen its protected area system as a key measure to conserve biodiversity (Zhang et al., 2015). However, the degree of coverage across different regions remains unbalanced (Cao et al., 2015). This has led also to differences in the level of protection of various taxonomic groups. China’s current protected area network has a relatively high representation for threatened mammals and birds, but only some 13.1% of the entire network area account for threatened plants (Xu et al., 2017). A complex hierarchy of administration and varying regulatory standards across different departments challenges effective communication and information sharing (Cao et al., 2015; Sheng et al., 2020). To streamline the creation and management of new and existing protected areas, the Chinese government issued further Guidance on Establishing a System of Protected Areas with National Parks as the Main Body (General Office of the Communist Party of China Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council, 2019). Work to more representatively designate, scale up and sustainably manage protected areas has been accompanied by major restoration initiatives especially over the last two decades, notably the Natural Forest Protection Program and the Grain to Green Program, aimed at reducing logging, increasing vegetation cover, enhancing carbon sequestration and controlling soil erosion. Despite these advances, further efforts will have to be made to improve overall management and legislation, promote public participation and establish a diversified funding guarantee system for protected areas management (He and Cliquet, 2020). This endeavour is also reflected in China’s 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025) which includes enhanced safeguarding of natural ecosystems and the establishment of a national park-based nature reserve system. In addition, expanding forest coverage to 24.1% of China’s total land area is sought for, requiring planting of more than 11 million hectares of new forest by 2025 (Cooper, 2021). Against the backdrop of China’s immense botanical wealth, the launch of China’s Strategy for Plant Conservation (CSPC) (China’s Strategy for Plant Conservation Editorial Committee, 2008) in 2008 has been a central foundation and milestone to bring the con­ servation needs of Chinese plant diversity into focus (Gratzfeld and Wen, 2012). A joint initiative of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the State Forestry Administration (now, National Forestry and Grassland Administration) and the State Environmental Protection Agency (now, Ministry of Ecology and Environment), the CSPC has been developed based on the 16 measurable targets of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) (CBD, 2002, 2010). The CSPC has served as a catalyst to implement, measure and monitor progress made in plant conservation, such as publishing and assessing the conservation status of the flora of China (CSPC Targets 1 and 2), and developing and implementing threatened species and habitat recovery programmes (especially CSPC Targets 7 and 8) (Ren et al., 2019; Sharrock, 2020). However, further mainstreaming at the national level is required to sustainably conserve and secure China’s plant diversity into the future. 1.3. Advancing plant conservation remains a top priority need As elsewhere in the world, despite positive trends in environmental protection and recovery of biodiversity in China, native species and ecosystems continue to be at threat from various drivers of change. Degradation and loss of wild habitats as a result of accelerated urbanization, industrialization, agricultural expansion, overexploitation of biological resources, exotic, single-species plantations, environmental pollution as well as invasive alien species, are the main risk factors to the survival of native biodiversity (Blackmore and Oldfield, 2017; Jiang and Ma, 2009; López-Pujol et al., 2006; Ren, 2020). Whilst climate change presents another key threat to species and habitats, current and future impacts on China’s biological diversity require continuing study to improve understanding of their extent and potency to take suitable action (CBD (n.d.)). What is more, in spite of meritorious aspirations to reverse environmental degradation, scientists have also been warning of the potential negative effects of well-intentioned measures such as to plant billions of trees. In magnitudes and species compositions often non-representative and non-native to a given region, such schemes can exacerbate water scarcity and other detrimental effects including salinization, rather than combat desertification and improve biodiversity (Cao et al., 2010; Xu, 2011; Zhai et al., 2014; Bryan et al., 2018; Bond et al., 2019; Zastrow, 2019). To advance prioritisation of plant species in urgent need of conservation, and building on previous threatened plants assessments 2 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. (SEPA and IB-CAS, 1987; Fu and Jin, 1992; Wang and Xie, 2004), the Chinese government published the Red List of China Higher Plants (MEP, 2013) followed by the revised catalogue Threatened Species List of China’s Higher Plants (Qin et al., 2017). This list identifies some 3879 plant species as threatened but also records 4804 species as data deficient to evaluate their actual conservation status. In addition, the updated National Forestry and Grassland Administration (2021) includes 1101 species, with 125 and 976 species recorded as Grade I and II respectively, based on their level of threat (Ren et al., 2022). In response to the need to accelerate conservation action for the most threatened species, the Chinese government has been developing and promoting the concept of Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations (PSESP) since 2005 (Ma et al., 2013; Sun, 2013; Sun et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2020). Based on the elevated extinction risk of species occurring in small populations restricted to few locations, plant species with less than 5000 mature individuals in total and fewer than 500 mature individuals in each isolated population account as PSESP (Ma et al., 2013; Sun, 2013; Sun et al., 2019). First promulgated in Yunnan province, to date, some 120 species have been identified as PSESP (Sun, 2013; Yang et al., 2020). Major investment from the central as well as local governments has been extended to their conservation (Sun et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2020). As only species promulgated by the State Council of China as National Key Protected Wild Plants enjoy full legal protection (Ma et al., 2013; Sun et al., 2019), with a revised list by the National Forestry and Grassland Administration (NFGA) and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) published in 2021, the pro­ motion of the PSESP conservation concept is expected to fill an important gap in fast-tracking highly threatened plant species for practical conservation action. However, further research and practical conservation trials are required to resolve methodological and technical hurdles related to biological and population demographic constraints especially encountered in PSESP, such as limited seedlings recruitment or even the complete absence of seed generation in some species (Volis, 2016; Ren, 2020). Based on a systematic review of PSESP, Sun et al. (2021) recommend priorities for future research and conservation in China, including the update of the PSESP list, the introduction of indicators and evaluation of conservation effectiveness, as well as further research on the conservation theory and technology. Building on the momentum created by the implementation of China’s Strategy for Plant Conservation over the past decade, and against the backdrop of the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework (CBD, 2018), the next, scaled-up iteration the Chinese Strategy for Plant Conservation 2021–2030 is in preparation, expected to be launched in conjunction with the Fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CBD in China in 2022. 1.4. Promoting integrated conservation of native and threatened Chinese trees Based on China’s exceptional diversity in native plant species, Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) has been sup­ porting plant conservation in close collaboration with Chinese botanic gardens and other botanical institutions and conservation partners for over 15 years. With a special focus on native and threatened Chinese trees, taxa recorded for protection by law (National Key Protected Wild Plants Checklist 1999; 2021) or identified as threatened in the national red lists (Red List of China Higher Plants 2013; Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants 2017) and by the Global Tree Assessment (GTA) (https://globaltreeassessment.org/ ) have been prioritised for urgent conservation action under the Global Trees Campaign (GTC) (https://globaltrees.org). Launched in 1999 as a joint initiative of Fauna & Flora International (FFI) and BGCI, this integrated conservation programme aims to secure the survival of all tree species in their natural habitats. The overall objectives of the GTC are to 1) identify and prioritise the tree species of greatest conservation concern; 2) ensure that the world’s most threatened tree species are protected with populations recovering in situ through direct, practical and innovative interventions; 3) build capacity, supporting local conservationists to develop skills for effective tree species conservation, and to become champions for threatened trees in their region; and 4) mobilise other groups, empowering and motivating individuals across the world to catalyse wider action for tree species conservation (Global Trees Campaign Strategy 2016–2020). Here, we present a review of China’s tree species diversity and conservation status, and the practical conservation work carried out by botanic gardens and other conservation partners in China and BGCI over more than a decade under the Global Trees Campaign. This is exemplified by selected case studies, followed by a discussion and conclusions on future policy and action in support of conservation of China’s native and threatened tree flora. 2. Methodology 2.1. Data compilation and analysis of tree species, conservation assessment and ex situ collection status in China The list of tree species native to China (including Hong Kong SAR and Chinese Taiwan) was collated based on GlobalTreeSearch (BGCI, 2021) accessed via BGCI’s GlobalTree Portal (https://www.bgci.org/resources/bgci-databases/globaltree-portal/country search for China, Hong Kong SAR and Chinese Taiwan). GlobalTreeSearch contains taxonomic information (family, taxon and author names) as well as data on country level endemism. Conservation status provided by ThreatSearch (BGCI, 2021), for each taxon was added to the list. If a global IUCN Red List assessment exists for the species this was used, if no global IUCN Red List assessment has been published then the Chinese national Red List category was used (Qin et al., 2017; MEP, 2013), lastly other published assessments from ThreatSearch were used (BGCI, 2021). For taxa where no global IUCN Red List assessment is available yet and the latest national assessments refer to categories other than applied in the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2012) these were given interpreted conservation status. Specifically, this concerns taxa evaluated as “Rare” which have been included in this category alongside Near Threatened species. For details of how the interpreted status is assigned see https://tools.bgci.org/threat_search.php?action=about. 3 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. To gauge the status of Chinese tree species in ex situ collections in China, the list was amalgamated with data recorded in Plant­ Search (BGCI, 2021). These data include living plants, tissue cultures and seeds. This provides information on whether the taxa are cultivated and/or stored as seed in botanic gardens, arboreta, seed banks and other ex situ conservation institutions and facilities. PlantSearch is the most comprehensive source of data for ex situ collections of plants worldwide comprising over 1.5 million collection records representing over 640000 taxa. In 2018, in a concerted digitisation effort, a further 25944 Chinese ex situ collection records were added to PlantSearch. Nevertheless, it is expected that there is ex situ collection information in China that is not yet accounted for at the global level, including data recorded in the Big Data Platform for Ex Situ Plant Conservation under the Initiative for Collective Conservation in Chinese Botanical Gardens (ICCBG). 2.2. Review of projects implemented in China under the Global Trees Campaign To review the impact and legacy of Global Trees Campaign (GTC) initiatives in China between 2008 and 2020, a comprehensive list of tree taxa included in GTC projects was compiled based on BGCI’s project archive. The taxa were categorised into two groups: in­ tegrated ex and in situ single taxon conservation projects (Group 1), and taxa part of survey, conservation assessment and/or habitat recovery projects (Group 2). Based on the nature of the project interventions, a tag was assigned for improved taxon and population information following survey and assessment work, and, as applicable, for enhanced in situ recovery ensuing population reinforcement action. In addition, ex situ collection status in China and at the global level was recorded using PlantSearch and the Big Data Platform for Ex Situ Plant Conservation. To exemplify the review findings with case studies, a questionnaire survey (Appendix A) made available in Chinese was sent to 17 former and present GTC partners. The survey was organised into taxon-related questions to gauge the status of ex situ and in situ conservation, and general questions especially pertaining to the legacy of the capacity building and public outreach efforts carried out under the projects. The survey selection of GTC partners targeted in particular projects implemented in the earlier part of the 2008–2020 period for the review to enable a longer, lapsed time horizon since completion of the projects. To confirm, clarify and/or fill gaps in the answers to the questionnaire, all respondents were contacted also via phone calls, emails and/or use of social media. 3. Results 3.1. Tree diversity in China There are 4886 tree species recorded as native to China (Fig. 1). This represents 8.3% of the world’s tree diversity (58173 species). Virtually half, 2429 tree species, are endemic to China. The 4886 tree species are distributed over 139 families. The top 20 families with the most tree species in China comprise 3206 taxa (Fig. 2). The family with the most tree species in China is Lauraceae with 470 tree species, followed by Fagaceae (329) and Rosaceae (273). Of the 24 families with only one tree species occurring in China (Table 1), two, Eucommiaceae and Ginkgoaceae are endemic. Moreover, the only tree species occurring in China in Centroplacaceae is the endemic Bhesa sinica. For 17 plant families, the Chinese tree species represent more than half of the total, global tree species diversity found in these families (Fig. 3). They include Eucommiaceae, Ginkgoaceae, Trochodendraceae and Helwingiaceae where all (100%) species in the family are found in China. The most tree species diverse families in this category include Theaceae (122 species), Betulaceae (82 species), Elaeagnaceae (58 species) and Hamamelidaceae (44 species). Among the top 20 tree genera with the most Chinese native species (Fig. 4), four stand out including Ilex (Aquifoliaceae) with 153 species, Rhododendron (Ericaceae) with 144 species as well as Lithocarpus with 129 species and Quercus (Fagaceae) with 122 species. Other genera with important numbers of species include Magnolia, Acer and Salix. Fig. 1. Endemic and non-endemic tree species in China. 4 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Fig. 2. The 20 families with the most tree species in China. 3.2. Conservation status of Chinese tree species Of a total of 4886 tree species known from China, 19.7% (964) have been assessed as threatened, this includes 187 Critically Endangered (CR), 384 Endangered (EN) and 393 Vulnerable (VU) tree species (Fig. 5). A further 402 are categorised as Near Threatened (NT). Seven taxa are reported to be Extinct (EX) (Beilschmiedia ningmingensis, Lauraceae; Elaeagnus liuzhouensis, Elaeag­ naceae; Machilus salicoides, Lauraceae; Lepisanthes unilocularis, Sapindaceae; Ormosia howii, Fabaceae; Hopea shingkeng, Dipter­ ocarpaceae) or Regionally Extinct (RE) (Lithocarpus cryptocarpus, Fagaceae). 55.0% (2688) of the species are Least Concern, whilst Table 1 Families with a single tree species native to China (endemic taxa highlighted with asterisk). Family Species Acanthaceae Akaniaceae Amaranthaceae Aristolochiaceae Centroplacaceae Cercidiphyllaceae Erythroxylaceae Eucommiaceae* Eupteleaceae Gentianaceae Ginkgoaceae* Gnetaceae Hernandiaceae Linaceae Menispermaceae Pandaceae Penaeaceae Peraceae Platanaceae Polygonaceae Resedaceae Salvadoraceae Surianaceae Tetramelaceae Avicennia marina Bretschneidera sinensis Haloxylon ammodendron Aristolochia tagala Bhesa sinica* Cercidiphyllum japonicum Erythroxylum sinense Eucommia ulmoides* Euptelea pleiosperma Fagraea ceilanica Ginkgo biloba* Gnetum gnemon Hernandia nymphaeifolia Tirpitzia sinensis Cocculus laurifolius Microdesmis caseariifolia Crypteronia paniculata Chaetocarpus castanocarpus Platanus orientalis Calligonum arborescens Borthwickia trifoliata Azima tetracantha Suriana maritima Tetrameles nudiflora 5 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Fig. 3. Families with tree species present in China representing more than half of the global tree diversity in these families. 5.7% (280) are Data Deficient and 11.1% (545) have yet to be assessed. 3.3. Survey of native and endemic Chinese tree species in ex situ collections in botanic gardens and arboreta in China Of a global total of 52912 ex situ collection records of tree species, 6060 are located in China. These figures represent the presence of a given taxon in a collection but do not take into account the number of accessions or individuals. In total, there are 3141 tree species recorded in ex situ collections in China (Fig. 6). This represents some 64.2% of native and endemic trees in Chinese botanic gardens and arboreta. Of the 964 threatened taxa, 50.2% (484) are reported in these ex situ collections. In addition, 66.1% (2076) and 3.9% (122) are Least Concern and Data Deficient respectively, whilst 7.8% (244) have no conservation assessment. 1746 Chinese tree species are not reported to be in collections, including 668 threatened and Near Threatened species, as well as 158 and 301 species being Data Fig. 4. The 20 genera with the most native Chinese tree species. 6 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Fig. 5. Conservation assessment status of 4886 Chinese tree species. Deficient or not assessed respectively. 3.4. Review of projects implemented in China under the Global Trees Campaign From 2008 to 2020, some 102 taxa were included in projects in China under the Global Trees Campaign (GTC) (Table 2 and Fig. 7), on average for a three-year period per project. Of these, 35 (Group 1) formed part of integrated ex and in situ species recovery projects, whilst 67 (Group 2) were included in projects with varying scope, such as survey and conservation assessment work, and/or habitat restoration initiatives. Generally, species included in practical conservation projects (Group 1) were selected based on their threat status and urgency of conservation action, comprising 27 taxa (11 Critically Endangered (CR), 14 Endangered (EN) and two Vulnerable (VU). A further five Least Concern (LC) and three Data Deficient (DD) were also included in this group of GTC projects. Species included in Group 2 include five Critically Endangered (CR), six Endangered (EN) and eight Vulnerable (VU), and three Near Threatened (NT). In addition, there are 41 Least Concern (LC), two Data Deficient (DD) and two Not Evaluated (NE). Group 1 and 2 considered together, the assessment categories with the highest proportion of species included in GTC projects between 2008 and 2020 are Critically Endangered (9.4%), Endangered (5.5%) and Vulnerable (2.6%) (Table 3). The GTC interventions, including survey and inventory and conservation assessment, have contributed to improved knowledge (e. Fig. 6. Chinese tree species in ex situ collections in botanic gardens and arboreta in China per threat category. 7 8 Family Species Endemic Conservation status Reference Improved knowledge of taxa / populations Ex situ collec-tions in China Ex situ collec-tions globally In situ population reinforce-ment 1 2 3 4 5 6 Akaniaceae Betulaceae Betulaceae Betulaceae Cupressaceae Ericaceae Bretschneidera sinensis Carpinus putoensis Carpinus tientaiensis Ostrya rehderiana Glyptostrobus pensilis Rhododendron liboense NO YES YES YES NO YES Endangered Critically Endangered Critically Endangered Critically Endangered Critically Endangered Critically Endangered ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 17 6 1 4 20 1 24 6 1 7 82 1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Fagaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae YES YES NO NO NO NO NO Critically Endangered Endangered Endangered Least Concern Endangered Data Deficient Data Deficient ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1 3 5 4 2 4 1 1 3 5 7 3 22 1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae NO NO YES NO YES YES YES YES YES Data Deficient Least Concern Critically Endangered Vulnerable Endangered Critically Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 11 2 4 4 8 5 2 3 7 37 2 13 4 8 5 2 3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 23 Nyssaceae YES Least Concern 9 139 ✓ Salicaceae Sapindaceae Sapindaceae Sapindaceae Styracaceae NO YES YES YES YES Least Concern Endangered Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List ✓ 24 25 26 27 28 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 1 3 6 3 9 1 4 4 3 ✓ 29 Styracaceae Lithocarpus formosanus Magnolia angustioblonga Magnolia aromatica Magnolia cathcartii Magnolia coriacea Magnolia doltsopa Magnolia fistulosa (Magnolia phanerophlebia) Magnolia fulva Magnolia insignis Magnolia longipedunculata Magnolia nitida Magnolia odoratissima Magnolia omeiensis Magnolia patungensis Magnolia sinostellata Magnolia ventii (Magnolia hebecarpa) Davidia involucrata var. involucrata Populus euphratica Acer leipoense Acer yangbiense Dipteronia dyeriana Changiostyrax dolichocarpus Styrax zhejiangensis IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants (2017) IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List YES Critically Endangered ✓ 2 2 ✓ 30 31 32 Taxaceae Theaceae Theaceae NO NO NO Least Concern Endangered Endangered ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 9 3 171 13 3 ✓ ✓ ✓ 33 34 35 36 37 38 Theaceae Theaceae Theaceae Altingiaceae Altingiaceae Amaranthaceae Taxus cuspidata Camellia euphlebia Camellia indochinensis var. tunghinensis Camellia nitidissima Euryodendron excelsum Pyrenaria buisanensis Liquidambar chingii Liquidambar formosana Haloxylon ammodendron NO YES YES NO NO NO Endangered Critically Endangered Critically Endangered Least Concern Least Concern Least Concern Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants (2017) IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants (2017) IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 9 2 1 1 9 5 12 2 1 1 79 7 ✓ ✓ J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 2 Overview of tree taxa included in Global Trees Campaign (GTC) projects in China between 2008 and 2020. 1–35 (Group 1): integrated ex and in situ, single taxon conservation projects; 36–102 (Group 2): taxa included in survey, conservation assessment and/or habitat recovery projects. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ (continued on next page) Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 ✓ ✓ ✓ Family Species Endemic Conservation status Reference Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) IUCN Red List Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants (2017) IUCN Red List Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants (2017) IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List 9 Improved knowledge of taxa / populations Ex situ collec-tions in China Ex situ collec-tions globally ✓ ✓ 8 5 8 49 ✓ ✓ 18 36 ✓ ✓ ✓ 14 8 21 11 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 4 12 3 6 4 248 19 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 3 7 3 57 5 8 40 ✓ 1 3 3 4 4 18 23 39 11 4 ✓ Anacardiaceae Aquifoliaceae Pistacia weinmanniifolia Ilex integra NO NO Data Deficient Least Concern 41 Arecaceae Caryota obtusa NO Vulnerable 42 43 Berberidaceae Bignoniaceae Dysosma versipellis Mayodendron igneum YES NO Vulnerable Least Concern 44 45 46 47 Cannabaceae Cannabaceae Cercidiphyllaceae Combretaceae Celtis philippensis Trema tomentosum Cercidiphyllum japonicum Terminalia bellirica NO NO NO NO Least Concern Least Concern Least Concern Endangered 48 49 50 51 Dilleniaceae Dipentodontaceae Dipterocarpaceae Ericaceae NO NO NO YES Least Concern Least Concern Endangered Not Evaluated 52 53 54 55 56 Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae NO NO NO NO NO Least Concern Least Concern Least Concern Least Concern Least Concern IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 57 58 59 60 61 62 Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae NO YES NO YES NO YES Least Concern Vulnerable Endangered Least Concern Least Concern Critically Endangered IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 10 7 3 7 1 18 14 7 4 8 1 63 64 65 Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Dillenia indica Dipentodon sinicus Parashorea chinensis Rhododendron argyrophyllum Rhododendron beesianum Rhododendron maddenii Rhododendron sinogrande Mallotus paniculatus Trevia nudiflora (Mallotus nudiflorus) Adenanthera microsperma Dalbergia odorifera Erythrophleum fordii Ormosia pinnata Castanopsis fissa Quercus sichourensis (Cyclobalanopsis sichourensis) Cinnamomum burmanni Cinnamomum japonicum Machilus chekiangensis NO NO YES Least Concern Least Concern Near Threatened ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 10 2 17 33 2 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Lecythidaceae Lythraceae Machilus chinensis Machilus thunbergii Neolitsea sericea Phoebe bournei Phoebe lanceolata Phoebe zhennan Barringtonia racemosa Lagerstroemia villosa NO NO NO YES NO YES NO NO Least Concern Least Concern Least Concern Near Threatened Least Concern Vulnerable Least Concern Vulnerable ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 9 6 12 3 8 5 1 4 27 72 14 4 10 33 3 74 Magnoliaceae Liriodendron chinense NO Near Threatened IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants (2017) IUCN Red List ✓ 24 120 ✓ ✓ (continued on next page) Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 39 40 In situ population reinforce-ment J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 2 (continued ) J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 2 (continued ) 10 Species Endemic Conservation status Reference Improved knowledge of taxa / populations Ex situ collec-tions in China Ex situ collec-tions globally 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Malvaceae Meliaceae Meliaceae Moraceae Moraceae Magnolia campbellii Magnolia grandis Magnolia officinalis Magnolia sinica Craigia yunnanensis Aphanamixis polystachya Chukrasia tabularis Antiaris toxicaria Ficus hookeriana NO YES YES YES NO NO NO NO NO Least Concern Critically Endangered Endangered Critically Endangered Endangered Least Concern Least Concern Least Concern Critically Endangered ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1 9 12 6 4 5 5 6 1 38 9 65 9 4 22 18 28 1 84 Myristicaceae Horsfieldia amygdalina NO Least Concern ✓ 4 4 85 86 Myristicaceae Nyssaceae Knema tenuinervia Camptotheca acuminata NO YES Vulnerable Least Concern ✓ ✓ 2 13 2 64 87 88 Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthaceae Bischofia polycarpa Cleistanthus sumatranus YES NO Least Concern Least Concern ✓ ✓ 7 3 22 5 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 Pinaceae Pinaceae Polygalaceae Rosaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Salicaceae Pinus massoniana Pinus squamata Polygala fallax Malus ombrophila Phellodendron chinense Tetradium ruticarpum Homalium ceylanicum YES YES YES YES YES NO NO Least Concern Critically Endangered Least Concern Data Deficient Least Concern Least Concern Vulnerable ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 11 1 6 2 6 9 3 36 1 6 4 53 24 3 96 97 98 Tamaricaceae Tamaricaceae Taxaceae NO NO NO Not Evaluated Least Concern Endangered IUCN Red List IUCN Red List ✓ ✓ 7 2 8 19 38 42 99 100 101 102 Tetramelaceae Theaceae Thymelaeaceae Trochodendraceae Tamarix chinensis Tamarix ramosissima Taxus wallichiana (Taxus yunnanensis) Tetrameles nudiflora Schima argentea Aquilaria sinensis Tetracentron sinense IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants (2017) Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) IUCN Red List Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) IUCN Red List Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Threatened Species of China’s Higher Plants (2017) NO NO YES NO Least Concern Least Concern Vulnerable Least Concern IUCN Red List IUCN Red List IUCN Red List Chinese Biodiversity Red List–Higher Plants (2013) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 8 6 5 6 23 6 60 In situ population reinforce-ment ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 Family Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Fig. 7. Selected Global Trees Campaign (GTC) projects. (1) Camellia nitidissima, Fangcheng, Guangxi (Xiangying Wen); (2) Populus euphratica, Xinjiang (Xiangying Wen); (3) Glyptostrobus pensilis (centre), Funing, Yunnan (Weibang Sun); (4) Styrax zhejiangensis seedlings, Zhejiang (Chuping Wu); (5) Magnolia omeiensis saplings transport to population reinforcement site, Emei Mountain, Sichuan (Daoping Yu); (6) Rhododendron liboense (Chengling Huang); (7) Training in Rhododendron liboense propagation techniques, Guizhou (Xiangying Wen); (8) Karst ecosystem assisted regen­ eration, Guangxi (Joachim Gratzfeld). g. reproduction/population biology) for 92% of the target tree taxa. Seven taxa remain Data Deficient or have not been assessed yet. For almost half of the GTC taxa – 50 (49%) – in situ population reinforcement programmes through planting of saplings grown in ex situ collections have been implemented (Table 4). As exemplified in the selected case studies (Table 5), the mean survival rate is 68%, and 11 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 3 Proportion of taxa included in Global Trees Campaign (GTC) projects between 2008 and 2020 by assessment category. Assessment category GTC taxa Group 1 GTC taxa Group 2 Taxa not included in GTC projects Proportion of taxa by assessment category included in GTC projects CR EN VU NT LC DD NE EX/RE Total 11 14 2 0 5 3 0 0 35 5 6 8 3 41 2 2 0 67 171 364 383 399 2642 275 543 7 4784 9.4% 5.5% 2.6% 0.8% 1.7% 1.8% 0.4% 0% 2.1% in some taxa above 80% (e.g. Bretschneidera sinensis, Acer yangbiense, Magnolia omeiensis, Dipteronia dyeriana, Camellia spp.) but can also be much lower, e.g. 20% in Magnolia coriacea. For more than 25% of the GTC project species, new ex situ conservation collections have been established, including for taxa for which no collections existed prior to the project (e.g. Bretschneidera sinensis, Acer yangbiense, Magnolia omeiensis, Rhododendron liboense, Carpinus tientaiensis and Styrax zhejiangensis) (Table 5). The case studies also illustrate that horticultural trials as vital foundations of in situ recovery programmes have very species-specific outcomes, e.g. both seed and vegetative propagation of Euryodendron excelsum are effectual, whilst vegetative propagation has had limited success or entirely failed in Bretschneidera sinensis, Populus euphratica, Carpinus tientaiensis and Glyptostrobus pensilis. Capacity building and public outreach form an integral part of the GTC projects to ensure their long-term sustainability. The 15 case studies alone record over 3000 representatives from local authorities and communities who have been engaged in the technical training (such as plant propagule collection, propagation, cultivation, nursery management, in situ species recovery) and public outreach to raise awareness of the needs and benefits of the conservation of the target species. These efforts are not only vital to secure the future of highly threatened species such as the Critically Endangered Magnolia omeiensis or Carpinus tientaiensis in Sichuan and Zhejiang respectively. They are also of fundamental importance for the continued provision of goods and services supplied by eco­ systems composed of keystone tree species as for instance the Populus euphratica riparian forests in the desert regions of Xinjiang. Another indicator of the long-term legacy of the GTC projects implemented in China between 2008 and 2020 is their inspiration of new ideas for the conservation of other native plant taxa. For instance, the project on Magnolia omeiensis implemented in collaboration with Emeishan Botanical Garden, Sichuan, has acted as a catalyst for the development of new projects on Magnolia wilsonii and M. sieboldii subsp. sinensis supported by the Sichuan Science and Technology Department. In a similar vein, recognising the importance of the long-term conservation needs of the Critically Endangered Styrax zhejiangensis, the authorities in Zhejiang have included this species in Zheijang’s Five-Year Plan (2021–2025). In addition, further support has been mobilised from the Zhejiang Forest Bureau and Basic Public Welfare Research Program of Zhejiang Province for other threatened species, including the Endangered Changiostyrax dolichocarpus, and the Critically Endangered Carpinus tientaiensis, Carpinus putoensis and Ostrya rehderiana. 4. Discussion With its huge land area and diversity in landscapes and ecological conditions, China predictably boasts a significant degree of plant endemism (Hong and Blackmore, 2013). It may therefore not come as a surprise that in effect half, 49.7% (2429 taxa) of China’s tree flora is endemic. Whilst Ginkgoaceae and Eucommiaceae present two tree families unique to China, other charismatic endemic taxa include Davidia involucrata (Nyssaceae) and the relict lineages Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae), Cathaya argyrophylla (Pinaceae) and Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Taxodiaceae). The three most diverse tree families in China include large numbers of species belonging to genera of major socio-economic importance, such as Cinnamomum spp. and Machilus spp. in Lauraceae, Lithocarpus spp. and Quercus spp. in Fagaceae as well as Prunus spp. and Sorbus spp. in Rosaceae, whilst Ilex in Aquifoliaceae and Rhododendron in Ericaceae are the two genera in China with the most tree species. Other socio-economically important families are Theaceae (122 Chinese tree species), Table 4 Summary overview of Global Trees Campaign (GTC) project taxa in China between 2008 and 2020. Total of GTC project taxa Total of GTC endemic taxa Total of GTC threatened taxa Total of GTC taxa with improved knowledge Total of GTC taxa with in situ population reinforcement action Total of ex situ collection records in China for GTC taxa Total of ex situ collection records globally for GTC taxa 12 102 39 46 94 50 576 2305 Taxa and conservation status, incl. PSESP (Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations) Bretschneidera sinensis Akaniaceae Endangered 13 Carpinus tientaiensis Betulaceae Critically Endangered PSESP Mixed forest; temperate to subtropical Hubei; Zhejiang; Hunan; Fujian; Jiangxi; Guangdong; Sichuan; Guangxi; Yunnan; Guizhou; Taiwan; Vietnam; Laos Mixed broadleaved forest; temperate Tiantai, Panan, Jingning county; Zhejiang 397 mature individuals remaining (5 in Dapanshan Nature Reserve; 19 in Tiantai Huangding Forest Park; 373 in Jingning Shangshantou） Moist lowland swamp; subtropical to tropical Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Yunnan; Laos; Viet Nam Project period and main partners Ex situ conservation Ex situ conservation collections existing prior to project Best practice propagation developed: 2008–2010 South China Botanical Garden; Dongguan Forest Park; and Shimen National Forest Park, Guangdong No 2017–2019 Zhejiang Forestry Academy 2017–2019 South China Botanical Garden, CAS In situ conservation Project legacy: continued conservation support by Chinese institutions, and catalyst for the development of new projects targeting other native and threatened species Guangdong Provincial Natural Science Foundation; Guangdong Provincial Science and Technology Research; National Natural Science Foundation; and Chinese Academy of Sciences Zhejiang Forestry Bureau Parrotia subaequalis (CR) Ex situ living collection locations and numbers of individuals Main location of in situ recovery action and type of recovery action: S (vegetative unsuccessful) South China Botanical Garden; Dongguan Forest Park; and Shimen National Forest Park, Guangdong ~520 Nankun Shan Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangdong PR ~300 100% 350 No S (vegetative unsuccessful) Yunhe Wetland Park ~300 Wuchaoshan National Forest Park 45 Tiantai Forest Farm; Dapanshan Nature Reserve; Jingning Shangshantou PR 4,840 80% 150 Yes (Zhuhai) S (vegetative unsuccessful) Guangzhou Shimen National Forest Park; Guangzhou Biodiversity Conservation Center; Guangzhou Haizhu Wetland Park; Hunan Forest Botanic Garden; Ruyuan • seed (S) • vegetative (V) • population reinforcement (PR) • new population establishment (PE) Total number of saplings planted and survival rate (%) at the end of 2020 Number of representatives from local authorities and communities engaged and reached through training and public outreach 20 Guangzhou Wildlife Conservation Office; Guangdong Provincial Forestry Bureau (continued on next page) Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 Glyptostrobus pensilis Cupressaceae Critically Endangered PSESP Habitat and distribution, incl. mature individuals remaining in the wild if known J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 5 Selected Global Trees Campaign (GTC) project case studies. Taxa and conservation status, incl. PSESP (Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations) Rhododendron liboense Ericaceae Critically Endangered 14 Magnoliacoriacea Magnoliaceae Endangered 762 mature individuals remaining Mixed broadleaved forest on karst; subtropical Maolan National Reserve;Guizhou 86 mature individuals remaining Evergreen broadleaved forest; subtropical to tropical Yunnan (southwest) 300–500 mature individuals remaining Evergreen broadleaved forest; subtropical to tropical Sichuan 76 mature individuals remaining Project period and main partners Ex situ conservation Ex situ conservation collections existing prior to project Best practice propagation developed: • seed (S) • vegetative (V) In situ conservation Ex situ living collection locations and numbers of individuals Main location of in situ recovery action and type of recovery action: • population reinforcement (PR) • new population establishment (PE) Total number of saplings planted and survival rate (%) at the end of 2020 Number of representatives from local authorities and communities engaged and reached through training and public outreach Project legacy: continued conservation support by Chinese institutions, and catalyst for the development of new projects targeting other native and threatened species Tianjingshan Farm~1700 2017–2019 Guizhou Minzu University No S and V (tissue culture) Guizhou Minzu University nursery ~2000 Jia Yi, Maolan National Nature Reserve PR 180 65% 200 National Natural Science Foundation of China Rhododendron magniflorum (DD) 2008–2010 Kunming Botanical Garden, CAS,Yunnan Yes (Kunming Botanical Garden) S and V (tissue culture) Kunming Botanical Garden, CAS 4 Daping Township, Malipo county, Yunnan PR 40 20% 30 2016–2020 Emeishan Botanical Garden; Chengdu Botanical Garden; West China Subalpine Botanical Garden, Sichuan; Kunming Botanical Garden, Yunnan; Wuhan Botanical Garden, Hubei; Lushan No S and V Emeishan Botanical Garden ~214 Emei Mountain PR and PE 800 95% 300 National Natural Science Foundation of China Taxus wallichiana (EN); Magnolia campbellii (LC); Dipentodon sinicus (LC); Rhododendron protistum var. giganteum (CR); Acer yangbiense (EN); Cyclobalanopsis sichourensis (CR); Pinus squamata (CR); Craigia yunnanensis (EN) Sichuan Science and Technology Department Magnolia wilsonii (NT);Magnolia sieboldii subsp. sinensis (VU) (continued on next page) Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 Magnolia omeiensis Magnoliaceae Critically Endangered PSESP Habitat and distribution, incl. mature individuals remaining in the wild if known J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 5 (continued ) Taxa and conservation status, incl. PSESP (Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations) Habitat and distribution, incl. mature individuals remaining in the wild if known Project period and main partners Botanical Garden, Jiangxi; Xi’an Botanical Garden, Shaanxi; Zhongshan Botanical Garden, Jiangsu 2008–2010 Kunming Botanical Garden, CAS,Yunnan Ex situ conservation Ex situ conservation collections existing prior to project Best practice propagation developed: Yes (Kunming Botanical Garden) In situ conservation Main location of in situ recovery action and type of recovery action: S and V (tissue culture) Kunming Botanical Garden, CAS 12 Gulinqing, Yunnan PR Kunming Rare Plants Introduction Base; Kunming Botanical Garden, CAS ~100 Daweishan National Nature Reserve, Yunnan PR • seed (S) • vegetative (V) Evergreen broadleaved forest; subtropical to tropical Yunnan (southeast) < 200 mature individuals remaining Dipteronia dyeriana Sapindaceae Endangered PSESP Evergreen broadleaved forest; subtropical Yunnan (southeast) 4000 mature individuals remaining 2008–2010 Kunming Rare Plants Introduction Base; Kunming Botanical Garden, CAS, Yunnan Yes (Kunming Rare Plants Introduction Base) S and V Populus euphratica Salicaceae Least Concern (National Key Protected Wild Plants in Xinjiang Uygur Riparian forest; temperate to continental Xinjiang; Gansu; Qinghai, Inner Mongolia; Mongolia to West Asia 2012–2016 Tarim University; Forestry Bureaus of Luntai and Awati counties; Turpan Eremophytes Botanical Garden; Xinjiang Yes (Turpan Eremophytes Botanical Garden; Minqin Desert Plants Garden, Gansu; Tarim University) S and V (vegetative propagation low success rate) 15 Magnolia phanerophlebia (M. fistulosa) Magnoliaceae Data Deficient • population reinforcement (PR) • new population establishment (PE) Luntai county PR Number of representatives from local authorities and communities engaged and reached through training and public outreach Project legacy: continued conservation support by Chinese institutions, and catalyst for the development of new projects targeting other native and threatened species 50 40% 30 ~1300 (over 465 seedlings and 835 saplings obtained from cuttings) 80% 4,000 60% 200 National Natural Science Foundation of China Taxus wallichiana (EN); Magnolia campbellii (LC); Dipentodon sinicus (LC); Rhododendron protistum var. giganteum (CR); Acer yangbiense (EN); Cyclobalanopsis sichourensis (CR); Pinus squamata (CR); Craigia yunnanensis (EN) Ministry of Science and Technology Magnolia hebecarpa (EN); Magnolia sinica (CR); Magnolia lucida (EN) Total number of saplings planted and survival rate (%) at the end of 2020 900 National Natural Science Foundation of China Populus pruinosa (NT); Ammopiptanthus nanus (CR); Lycium ruthenicum; (continued on next page) Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 Ex situ living collection locations and numbers of individuals J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 5 (continued ) Taxa and conservation status, incl. PSESP (Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations) Autonomous Region 2015) Acer yangbiense Sapindaceae Endangered 16 Project period and main partners Ex situ conservation Ex situ conservation collections existing prior to project Best practice propagation developed: • seed (S) • vegetative (V) In situ conservation Ex situ living collection locations and numbers of individuals Main location of in situ recovery action and type of recovery action: • population reinforcement (PR) • new population establishment (PE) Total number of saplings planted and survival rate (%) at the end of 2020 Number of representatives from local authorities and communities engaged and reached through training and public outreach Mixed forest; subtropical Cangshan Malutang and Taiping Town, Yangbi county, Laowo Town, Lushui county; Yunnan 700 mature individuals remaining 2013–2014 Kunming Botanical Garden; Cao-Jian Forestry Station, Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture; Yunnan No S Cao-Jian Forestry Station ~2,000Kunming Botanical Garden 50 Cangshan West Slope Taiping Town PR 150 45% 2,000 90% 50 Evergreen, broadleaved forest; subtropical to tropical Jiande, Zhejiang ~106 mature individuals remaining 2017–2019 Zhejiang Forestry Academy; China Jiliang University; Zhejiang University; Tiantai county Forestry Bureau; Panan county Dapan Mountain National Nature Reserve; Sanmen Botanical Garden No S and V (cuttings) Wuchaoshan National Forest Park, Zhejiang 16 Wuchao Mountain, Zhejiang PR and PE ~590 85% 130 No S and V 230 Project legacy: continued conservation support by Chinese institutions, and catalyst for the development of new projects targeting other native and threatened species Glycyrrhiza inflata; Poacynum hendersonii National Natural Science Foundation of China; Ministry of Science and TechnologyTaxus wallichiana (EN); Magnolia campbellii (LC); Dipentodon sinicus (LC); Rhododendron protistum var. giganteum (CR); Acer yangbiense (EN); Cyclobalanopsis sichourensis (CR); Pinus squamata (CR); Craigia yunnanensis (EN) Zhejiang Forest Bureau;Basic Public Welfare Research Program of Zhejiang Province; this species is included in Zheijang’s new FiveYear Plan (2021–2025) Changiostyrax dolichocarpus (EN); Carpinus tientaiensis (CR); Carpinus putoensis (CR); Ostrya rehderiana (CR); Isoetes sinensis; Ardisia violacea (continued on next page) Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 Styrax zhejiangensis Styracaceae Critically Endangered Habitat and distribution, incl. mature individuals remaining in the wild if known J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 5 (continued ) Taxa and conservation status, incl. PSESP (Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations) Habitat and distribution, incl. mature individuals remaining in the wild if known Project period and main partners Ex situ conservation Ex situ conservation collections existing prior to project Best practice propagation developed: • seed (S) • vegetative (V) 17 Evergreen broadleaved forest; tropical Guangxi (southwest);Viet Nam < 5000 mature individuals remaining 2012–2016 Nanning Arboretum; Nanning Jinhua Tea Park; Guilin Botanical Garden; Fangcheng National Camellia Nature Reserve, Guangxi Camellia indochinensis var. tunghinensis Theaceae Endangered Evergreen broadleaved forest; tropical Guangxi (south) 2012–2016 Nanning Arboretum; Nanning Jinhua Tea Park; Guilin Botanical Garden; Fangcheng National Camellia Nature Reserve, Guangxi No S and V Camellia nitidissima Theaceae Endangered Evergreen broadleaved forest; tropical Fangcheng, Guangxi;Viet Nam 2012–2016Nanning Arboretum; Nanning Jinhua Tea Park; Guilin Botanical Garden; Fangcheng National Camellia Nature Reserve, Guangxi No S and V Euryodendron excelsum Theaceae Critically Endangered PSESP Evergreen broadleaved forest; tropical Bajia town, Yangchun county, Guangdong; Pingnan and Bama counties, 2011–2012 South China Botanical Garden, CAS; Ehuangzhang Nature Reserve of Yangchun county; Guangdong Yes (South China Botanical Garden) S and V (in particular airlayering) Project legacy: continued conservation support by Chinese institutions, and catalyst for the development of new projects targeting other native and threatened species Nanning Arboretum; Nanning Jinhua Tea Park; Guilin Botanical Garden; Fangcheng National Camellia Nature Reserve, Guangxi ~500 Nanning Arboretum; Nanning Jinhua Tea Park; Guilin Botanical Garden; Fangcheng National Camellia Nature Reserve, Guangxi ~200 Nanning Arboretum; Nanning Jinhua Tea Park; Guilin Botanical Garden; Fangcheng National Camellia Nature Reserve, Guangxi ~2000 South China Botanical Garden, CAS;Ehuangzhang Nature Reserve of the Yangchun county ~200 Jiangping, Shangsi; Golden Camellia National Nature Reserve, Fangcheng, Guangxi PR 2,000 90% Jiangping, Shangsi; Golden Camellia National Nature Reserve, Fangcheng, Guangxi PR 1,000 90% 230 National Natural Science Foundation of China Reevesia rotundifolia (CR); Camellia fangchengensis (CR) Jiangping, Shangsi; Golden Camellia National Nature Reserve, Fangcheng, Guangxi PR 20,000 90% 230 National Natural Science Foundation of China Ehuangzhang Nature Reserve of Yangchun county PR 120 60% 40 South China Botanical Garden (emphasis on tissue culture propagation) Glyptostrobus pensilis (CR) • population reinforcement (PR) • new population establishment (PE) Total number of saplings planted and survival rate (%) at the end of 2020 Number of representatives from local authorities and communities engaged and reached through training and public outreach Main location of in situ recovery action and type of recovery action: National Natural Science Foundation of China (continued on next page) Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 Camellia euphlebia Theaceae Endangered In situ conservation Ex situ living collection locations and numbers of individuals J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 5 (continued ) J. Gratzfeld et al. Table 5 (continued ) Taxa and conservation status, incl. PSESP (Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations) Habitat and distribution, incl. mature individuals remaining in the wild if known Project period and main partners Ex situ conservation Ex situ conservation collections existing prior to project Best practice propagation developed: 18 • seed (S) • vegetative (V) In situ conservation Ex situ living collection locations and numbers of individuals Main location of in situ recovery action and type of recovery action: • population reinforcement (PR) • new population establishment (PE) Total number of saplings planted and survival rate (%) at the end of 2020 Number of representatives from local authorities and communities engaged and reached through training and public outreach Project legacy: continued conservation support by Chinese institutions, and catalyst for the development of new projects targeting other native and threatened species Guangxi ~100 mature individuals remaining Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Betulaceae (82 Chinese tree species) and Hamamelidaceae (44 Chinese tree species), respectively representing more than half of the global tree diversity found in these families, as well as Magnoliaceae with over a third (109 tree species) of the total number of species at the global level. Many of the species in these groups are well-known for their ornamental value, in addition to a number of other native tree species used in amenity planting such as the monotypic Bretschneidera sinensis (Akaniaceae) or Cercidiphyllum japonicum (Cercidiphyllaceae) and Liriodendron chinense (Magnoliaceae), with only two species in these genera worldwide. With all forest biome types, from tropical to boreal, represented in China, the biggest diversity in tree species is found in the tropical, subtropical and temperate zones of southern China, especially in Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan and Taiwan (López-Pujol et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2018). This explains why the majority of GTC projects between 2008 and 2020 were situated in China’s southern and southeastern provinces and administrative regions, with the exception of Xinjiang’s unique Populus euphratica riparian forests or populations of Haloxylon ammodendron in northern China. This review has highlighted the many efforts carried out or under way by the government of China to secure the nation’s unique biological heritage into the future. However the analysis has also identified that one in five native Chinese tree species is at risk of extinction. This figure could be even significantly higher once the conservation status of the over 825 species recorded as Data Deficient or not assessed yet, is established. Besides the well-known, man-made drivers of change largely attributed to the loss and degradation of wild habitat, to a lesser yet not negligible extent some of the species’ own reproductive biology may enhance their vulnerability to risks. This includes low seed setting, dispersal, and/or seedlings survival rates, slow growth, and low population density (Volis, 2016; Ren, 2020), especially found in a number of taxa identified by the government of China as Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations (PSESP), for instance Euryodendron excelsum and Glyptostrobus pensilis. Tree species with small natural reproduction rates are in particular need of further scientific study of their biology as well as systematic horticultural trials to establish best-practice in propagation tailored to the individual species. Both these components form an integral part of all GTC projects. Against the backdrop of some 964 threatened and a further 402 Near Threatened trees native to China, the number of taxa in these categories included in GTC conservation projects between 2008 and 2020 may appear comparatively small. However, considering the taxon-specific and often lengthy survey and inventory efforts to establish distribution data, collect propagules, trial propagation methods and generate saplings for in situ recovery measures, the 46 threatened and three Near Threatened of a total of 102 GTC project taxa that were included in these efforts, present a significant achievement. As the government of China has been giving more focused attention in recent years to ecological restoration in large-scale tree planting schemes, growing the ‘right species in the right place’ (Xu, 2011) through appropriate, native species selection and sourcing of germplasm that takes genetic diversity and provenance into account, are major prerequisites to increase ecosystem resilience and connectivity (Thomas et al., 2014). Integrated knowledge of seed collection, storage, germination requirements and seedling growth performance of native tree species is vital for location-specific conservation and restoration plans (Lu et al., 2016, 2017). The average, three-year project cycle and area size of intervention for target taxa under the GTC may at first glance appear modest when reflected in the context of billions of trees planted over millions of hectares. However, the GTC’s integrated conservation model promoting the use of a wide variety of native and threatened trees in restoration activities supports a growing number of research findings regarding the value of this approach not only for biodiversity recovery but also for storing carbon and combating climate change. (Lewis et al., 2019; Di Sacco et al., 2021). Whilst the in situ recovery work under the GTC in China has focused on enrichment and population rein­ forcement planting, it will take many more years to decades for the planted trees to reach maturity. In view of this long-term un­ dertaking, each project is subject to comprehensive monitoring and evaluation, part of a global system to measure progress in the implementation of the GTC worldwide, some of which is available through BGCI’s GlobalTree Portal. This may also serve as a useful model for other conservation initiatives at a time when more evidence-based project progress is called for by the Chinese government (Bryan et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020). Further, all GTC projects also include a major technical training and public outreach component, working with local authorities and communities to enhance conservation capacity and environmental sensitisation. Project efforts have also contributed to diversifying livelihoods of local community representatives through the propagation and sale of products derived from target species, such as leaves and flowers of the threatened Camellia nitidissima and C. euphlebia or the roots and whole plants of Polygala fallax. Chinese botanic gardens and arboreta have been the key institutional partners leading the GTC projects, working on ex situ con­ servation and collaborating with local authorities including forestry bureaus, nature reserves, research stations, etc. and communities on the conservation measures on site. 179 botanic gardens, arboreta and seed banks are recorded in BGCI’s GardenSearch database. As major conservation agents, these hold accessions related to some 3141 tree species in their ex situ collections. This represents more than half (64.2%) of China’s tree diversity and includes some 484 (15.4%) threatened tree species. Although the species most frequently found in botanic gardens and arboreta at the global level are those that are at less risk of extinction and only 21% of threatened trees are held in ex situ collections (BGCI, 2021), this ratio indicates that threatened tree collections in China fare better. However, whilst some taxa are better protected than others through multiple collections at several institutions, small numbers of ex situ collections are unlikely to capture the full genetic diversity of a wild population and therefore do not supply adequate plant propagules for in situ recovery (Rivers et al., 2015). Single-species collections at one institution do not provide protection for threatened taxa in the event of stochastic hazards, and for greatest conservation impact, ex situ collections should be diverse and held at multiple institutions (Ren, 2020). In summary, best-practice of integrated conservation as promoted by the GTC, presents an iterative process, involving both in situ and ex situ approaches. The selection of which conservation actions are appropriate in a particular case will vary between species, locations, their associated ecosystem and the resources available (Oldfield and Newton, 2012; Heywood et al., 2018). To be effective, integrated conservation approaches need to address the individual requisites and circumstances of each specific situation, including policy and/or legislation, active in situ protection and/or management such as population reinforcement planting or reintroduction, 19 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. propagation techniques, population-based ex situ collections, and public awareness and education programmes. At a time when the Chinese government is realizing and introducing a series of new policy and legal frameworks for environmental recovery and conservation of biodiversity, the experiences garnered by the implementation of the GTC in China over the past decade provide valuable lessons and guidance to inform future policy related to ecological reforestation (Wen, 2020). These efforts can also be drawn on in the call for a more scientific definition of ‘forest’ that distinguishes between forest types based on species composition and ecosystem function and their role in the conservation of biodiversity (Zhai et al., 2014). China’s long and extensive tree planting programme ‘does show that building a forest is a complex and subtle task. It varies with local conditions, and it must provide economic and social benefits for those who will have to look after the trees for generations’ (Bloomberg News, 2020). To guide future policy, not only the experiences gained in China but brought together from the multiple GTC projects implemented in over 50 countries worldwide will be invaluable. This will offer a global perspective to inform and devise locally adapted, strategic frameworks for biodiversity conservation. 5. Conclusions The joint efforts of the Chinese botanic garden community, the forestry sector, universities, other conservation institutions and BGCI to inventory, assess and conserve China’s tree diversity have served as an exemplar of integrated conservation best-practice while inspiring the development of new initiatives for the safeguard of threatened trees (Wen, 2020). However, although urgency prevails to scale up conservation action for many more species at the brink of extinction, the GTC initiative also offers an ecologically more nuanced conceptual framework for application in China’s large-scale tree planting and reforestation efforts. This integrated conser­ vation approach is especially opportune now, at a time when China is reviewing the effectiveness and expansion plans of its protected area system and is promoting the mainstreaming of biodiversity protection in all sectors of society. But it is also very timely as the nation is compelled to increase forest cover for carbon capture and economic growth. With the collaborative work presented in this analysis we seek to give a more forceful voice to the conservation value of imperiled, wild tree species. The GTC provides a comprehensive method to ascertain planting the ‘right tree in the right place’, but also ‘for the right purpose at the right time and with the right care’. In turn, this will enhance ecosystem recovery and resilience, and guarantee the continued provision of goods and services. Above all, we hope that this approach will ensure the longevity of tree diversity and its intrinsic values for the well-being of people and the planet into the distant future. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all project partners in China for responding to the questionnaire survey and providing Global Trees Campaign case studies and images. Our sincere appreciation for the provision of ex situ collection data goes to the Big Data Platform for Ex Situ Plant Conservation of the Initiative for Collective Conservation in Chinese Botanical Gardens, as well as the Science and Technology Information Center of Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences. We would also like to acknowledge the valuable comments on the manuscript made by the reviewers. BGCI is very grateful to Fondation Franklinia for their generous, long-term support to tree conservation in China and in other countries worldwide. Appendix A . Global Trees Campaign projects in China between 2008 and 2020 – Questionnaire survey Part 1: Project taxa. Ex situ conservation. Had a propagation protocol been developed for the target species as part of the project? Was all plant material used for the development of ex situ collections of wild origin? Are your ex situ collections genetically/geographically representative? What type of ex situ collections (vegetative/seed) were established as part of the project? How many individuals of the target species are currently in your ex situ collection and are there other ex situ collections (give details of the total number of individuals in these too) in China? Do you know whether there were ex situ collections already in place before the project started? If so, how many collections with how many individuals? In situ conservation. 20 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Has there been any in situ planting been conducted as part of the project? Can you provide quantitative details about the in situ planting work? How many individuals were planted over the total duration of the project (or estimates)? How many are surviving to this day? Are the in situ established individuals still under active management and if so what kind of management activities are taking place? Is there a national policy in place to protect this/these species? If so, please provide the source of the legislation. If so, what percentage of the total wild population is now under protection? Part 2: General questions. Is the training that was provided as part of the project still being effective? Do you have any evidence that the knowledge acquired through the training is still being used? Is there a particular member of the project team who excelled in tree conservation as part of this project? Can you provide examples of some of their achievements? Did this work inspire interest to initiate conservation work on further threatened tree species? Were additional groups inspired to adopt a role in tree conservation, either inspired by this project or trained through this project? Were additional species brought under conservation as a result of this project? Was any public awareness raising carried out in association with this project? How many people were reached? How effective and impactful do you think the awareness raising efforts were? Can you give examples of the impact? Was any additional funding raised from other sources for the target species? Or, have any funding applications been developed that are pending? If possible, please provide the amount of funding and the source. Is the former project partner interested to expand the work on the target species and/or are there additional threatened tree species that they are interested to work on if additional funding can raised by BGCI? If so, can you name the species? Thank you for your participation! References Beech, E., Rivers, M., Oldfield, S., Smith, P.P., 2017. GlobalTreeSearch: the first complete global database of tree species and country distributions. J. Sustain. For. 36 (5), 454–489. https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2017.1310049. BGCI, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 2021. State of the World’s Trees. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, United Kingdom. BGCI, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 2021. GlobalTreeSearch online database. Botanic Gardens Conservation International,, Richmond, United Kingdom.. Accessed 30 September 2021. https://www.bgci.org/global_tree_search.php BGCI, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 2021. PlantSearch. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, United Kingdom.. Accessed 30 September 2021. https://tools.bgci.org/plant_search.php BGCI, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 2021. Threat Search Online Database. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, United Kingdom.. Accessed 30 September 2021. https://www.bgci.org/threat_search.php BGCI, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 2021. GlobalTree Portal. https://www.bgci.org/resources/bgci-databases/global-tree-assessment-portal/. Blackmore, S., Oldfield, S., 2017. Plant conservation science and practice. The role of botanic gardens. Cambridge University Press. Bloomberg News, 2020. China’s 40 Year, Billion Tree Project is a lesson for the world. Its successes and failures provide an invaluable model for today’s reforestation efforts. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-14/china-s-40-year-billion-tree-project-is-a-lesson-for-the-world. Bond, W.J., Stevens, N., Midgley, G.F., Lehmann, C.E.R., 2019. The trouble with trees: afforestation plans for Africa. Trends Ecol. Evol. 34 (11), 963–965. Bryan, B.A., Gao, L., Ye, Y., Sun, X., Connor, J.D., Crossman, N.D., Stafford-Smith, M., Wu, J., He, C., Yu, D., Liu, Z., Li, A., Huang, Q., Ren, H., Deng, X., Zheng, H., Niu, J., Han, G., Hou, X., 2018. China’s response to a national land-system sustainability emergency. Nature 559, 193–204. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-0180280-2. Cao, M., Peng, L., Liu, S., 2015. Analysis of the network of protected areas in China based on a geographic perspective: current status, issues and integration. Sustainability 7, 15617–15631. https://doi.org/10.3390/su71115617. Cao, S., Tian, T., Chen, L., Dong, X., Yu, X., Wang, G., 2010. Damage caused to the environment by reforestation policies in arid and semi-arid areas of China. AMBIO 39, 279–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-010-0038-z. Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, the State Council of China The overall plan for the reform of the ecological civilization system http://www.gov. cn/guowuyuan/2015–09/21/content_2936327.htm. CBD, Convention on Biological Diversity, 2002. Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VI/9. https://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7183. CBD, Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010. Consolidated update of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/17. https://www.cbd. int/doc/decisions/cop-10/cop-10-dec-17-en.pdf. CBD, Convention on Biological Diversity, 2018. Comprehensive and Participatory Process for the Preparation of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. CBD/ COP/DEC/14/34. https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-34-en.pdf. CBD, Convention on Biological Diversity, (n.d.). China – Main details. Biodiversity facts. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Montreal, Canada. https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=cn. China’s Strategy for Plant Conservation Editorial Committee, 2008. China’s Strategy for Plant Conservation. Guangdong Science & Technology Press, P.R. China. Cooper, B., 2021. China’s 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025) report. Hill + Knowlton Strategies. https://www.hkstrategies.com/en/chinas-14th-five-year-plan-20212025-report/. Di Sacco, A., Hardwick, K.A., Blakesley, D., Brancalion, P.H.S., Breman, E., Cecilio Rebola, L., Chomba, S., Dixon, K., Elliott, S., Ruyonga, G., Shaw, K., Smith, P., Smith, R.J., Antonelli, A., 2021. Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery and livelihood benefits. Glob. Change Biol. 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15498. Fang, C., Wang, Z., Liu, H., 2020. Beautiful China Initiative: Human-nature harmony theory, evaluation index system and application. J. Geogr. Sci. 30 (5), 691–704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-020-1750-7. Fu, L.K., Jin, J.M., 1992. China Plant Red Data Book, Vol. 1: Rare and Endangered Plants. Science Press, Beijing. Gatti, R.C., Reich, P.B., Gamarra, J.G.P., Crowther, T., Hui, C., Morera, A., Bastin, J.-F., de-Miguel, S., Nabuurs, G.-J., Svenning, J.-C., Serra-Diaz, J.M., Merow, C., Enquist, B., Kamenetsky, M., Lee, J., Zhu, J., Fang, J., Jacobs, D.F., Pijanowski, B., Banerjee, A., Giaquinto, R.A., Alberti, G., Zambrano, A.M.A., Alvarez-Davila, E., 21 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Araujo-Murakami, A., Avitabile, V., Aymard, G.A., Balazy, R., Baraloto, C., Barroso, J.G., Bastian, M.L., Birnbaum, P., Bitariho, R., Bogaert, J., Bongers, F., Bouriaud, O., Brancalion, P.H.S., Brearley, F.Q., Broadbent, E.N., Bussotti, F., da Silva, W.C., César, R.G., Češljar, G., Moscoso, V.C., Chen, H.Y.H., Cienciala, E., Clark, C.J., Coomes, D.A., Dayanandan, S., Decuyper, M., Dee, L.E., Del Aguila Pasquel, J., Derroire, G., Djuikouo, M.N.K., Do, T.V., Dolezal, J., Đorđević, I.Đ., Engel, J., Fayle, T.M., Feldpausch, T.R., Fridman, J.K., Harris, D.J., Hemp, A., Hengeveld, G., Herault, B., Herold, M., Ibanez, T., Jagodzinski, A.M., Jaroszewicz, B., Jeffery, K.J., Johannsen, V.K., Jucker, T., Kangur, A., Karminov, V.N., Kartawinata, K., Kennard, D.K., Kepfer-Rojas, S., Keppel, G., Khan, M.L., Khare, P.K., Kileen, T.J., Kim, H.S., Korjus, H., Kumar, A., Kumar, A., Laarmann, D., Labrière, N., Lang, M., Lewis, S.L., Lukina, N., Maitner, B.S., Malhi, Y., Marshall, A.R., Martynenko, O.V., Mendoza, A.L.M., Ontikov, P.V., Ortiz-Malavasi, E., Camacho, N.C.P., Paquette, A., Park, M., Parthasarathy, N., Peri, P.L., Petronelli, P., Pfautsch, S., Phillips, O.L., Picard, N., Piotto, D., Poorter, L., Poulsen, J.R., Pretzsch, H., Ramírez-Angulo, H., Correa, Z.R., Rodeghiero, M., Del Pilar Rojas Gonzáles, R., Rolim, S.G., Rovero, F., Rutishauser, E., Saikia, P., Salas-Eljatib, C., Schepaschenko, D., Scherer-Lorenzen, M., Šebeň, V., Silveira, M., Slik, F., Sonké, B., Souza, A.F., Stereńczak, K.J., Svoboda, M., Taedoumg, H., Tchebakova, N., Terborgh, J., Tikhonova, E., Torres-Lezama, A., van der Plas, F., Vásquez, R., Viana, H., Vibrans, A.C., Vilanova, E., Vos, V.A., Wang, H.-F., Westerlund, B., White, L.J.T., Wiser, S.K., Zawiła-Niedźwiecki, T., Zemagho, L., Zhu, Z.-X., Zo-Bi, I. C., Liang, J., 2022. The number of tree species on Earth. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119, pp. 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.2115329119. General Office of the Communist Party of China Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council, 2019. Guidance on Establishing a System of Protected Areas with National Parks as the Main Body. Xinhua News. Gratzfeld, J., Wen, X.Y., 2012. China’s Strategy for Plant Conservation (CSPC) – Progress of implementation with special emphasis on CSPC Target 8 and interrelated targets. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, United Kingdom. He, M., Cliquet, A., 2020. Challenges for protected areas management in China. Sustainability 12 (5879), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12155879. BGCI and IABG’s Species Recovery Manual. In: Heywood, V., Shaw, K., Harvey-Brown, Y., Smith, P. (Eds.), 2018. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, United Kingdom. Plants of China: A Companion to the Flora of China. In: Hong, D.Y., Blackmore, S. (Eds.), 2013. Beijing. Science Press. IUCN, The World Conservation Union, 2012. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. Gland and Cambridge. Jiang, Z., Ma, K., 2009. Status quo, challenges and strategy in conservation biology. Biodivers. Sci. 17 (2), 107–116. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1003.2009.08279. Lewis, S.L., Wheeler, C.E., Mitchard, E.T.A., Koch, A., 2019. Regenerate natural forests to store carbon. Nature 568, 25–28. López-Pujol, J., Zhang, F.M., Ge, S., 2006. Plant diversity in China: richly varied, endangered, and in need of conservation. Biodivers. Conserv. 15, 3983–4026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-005-3015-2. López-Pujol, J., Zhang, F.-M., Sun, H.-Q., Ying, T.-S., Ge, S., 2011. Centres of plant endemism in China: places for survival or for speciation? J. Biogeogr. 38 (7), 1267–1280. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02504.x. Lu, Y., Ranjitkar, S., Harrison, R.D., Xu, J., Ou, X., Ma, X., He, J., 2017. Selection of native tree species for subtropical forest restoration in southwest China. PLoS ONE 12 (1), e0170418. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170418. Lu, Y., Ranjitkar, S., Xu, J.-C., Ou, X.-K., Zhou, Y.-Z., Ye, J.-F., Wu, X.-F., Weyerhaeuser, H., He, J., 2016. Propagation of native tree species to restore subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests in SW China. Forests 7 (1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7010012. Ma, Y., Chen, G., Grumbine, R.E., Dao, Z., Sun, W.B., Guo, H., 2013. Conserving plant species with extremely small population (PSESP) in China. Biodivers. Conserv. 22, 803–809. MEP, Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China, 2010. China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2011–2030). China Environmental Science Press, Beijing. MEP, Ministry of Environment Protection, CAS (Chinese Academy of Sciences) of the People’s Republic of China, 2013. China Biodiversity Red List – Volume on Higher Plants. Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Gil, P.R., Wilson, E.O., 1997. Megadiversity: Earth’s Biologically Wealthiest Nations. CEMEX, México. NFGA (National Forestry and Grassland Administration) MARA (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic) (2021). List of National Key Protected Wild Plants. Announcement No. 15, 2021. National Forestry and Grassland Administration. http://www.forestry.gov.cn/main/3954/20210908/ 163949170374051.html. Oldfield, S., Newton, A.C., 2012. Integrated Conservation of Tree Species by Botanic Gardens: A Reference Manual. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, United Kingdom. Qian, H., Deng, T., Sun, H., 2019. Global and regional tree species diversity. J. Plant Ecol. 12 (2), 210–215. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rty013. Qin, H.N., Yang, Y., Dong, S.Y., He, Q., Jia, Y., Zhao, L.N., Yu, S.X., Liu, H.Y., Liu, B., Yan, Y.H., Xiang, J.Y., Xia, N.H., Peng, H., Li, Z.Y., Zhang, Z.X., He, X.J., Yin, L.K., Lin, Y.L., Liu, Q.R., Hou, Y.T., Liu, Y., Liu, Q.X., Cao, W., Li, J.Q., Chen, S.L., Jin, X.H., Gao, T.G., Chen, W.L., Ma, H.Y., Geng, Y.Y., Jin, X.F., Chang, C.Y., Jiang, H., Cai, L., Zang, C.X., Wu, J.Y., Ye, J.F., Lai, Y.J., Liu, B., Lin, Q.W., Xue, N.X., 2017. Threatened species list of China’s higher plants. Biodivers. Sci. 25 (7), 696–744. https://doi.org/10.17520/biods.2017144. Conservation and Reintroduction of Rare and Endangered Plants in China. In: Ren, H. (Ed.), 2020. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Lt. https://doi.org/10.1007/978981-15-5301-1 Ren, H., Jin, X.H., Wang, R.J., Wen, X.Y., 2022. Plant Diversity and Conservation in China. Henan Science and Technology Press, Zhengzhou. Ren, H., Qin, H., Ouyang, Z., Wen, X.Y., Jin, X., Liu, H., Lu, H., Liu, H., Zhou, J., Zeng, Y., Smith, P., Jackson, P.W., Gratzfeld, J., Sharrock, S., Xu, H., Zhang, Z., Guo, Q., Sun, W.B., Ma, J., Hu, Y., Zhang, Q., Zhao, L., 2019. Progress of implementation on the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (2011–2020) in China. Biol. Conserv. 230, 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.12.030. Rivers, M., Shaw, K., Beech, E., Jones, M., 2015. Conserving the World’s Most Threatened Trees. A global survey of ex situ collections. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond. https://www.bgci.org/resources/bgci-tools-and-resources/conserving-the-worlds-most-threatened-trees/. SEPA, (State Environmental Protection Administration), IB-CAS, (Institute of Botany of Chinese Academy of Sciences), 1987. List of Rare and Endangered Protected Plants in China, 1. Science Press,, Beijing. Sharrock, S., 2020. Plant Conservation Report 2020: A review of progress in implementation of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation 2011–2020. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montréal, Canada and Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond. Technical Series No. 95. Sheng, G., Chen, H., Ferretti-Gallon, K., Innes, J.L., Wang, Z., Zhang, Y., Wang, G., 2020. Moving toward a greener China: Is China’s national park pilot program a solution? Land 9 (489), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9120489. Sun, W.B., 2013. Conservation of Plant Species With Extremely Small Populations in Yunnan - Practice and Exploration. Yunnan Science and Technology Press, Kunming. Sun, W.B., Ma, Y., Blackmore, S., 2019. How as new conservation action concept has accelerated plant conservation in China. Trends Plant Sci. 24 (1), 4–6. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2018.10.009. Sun, W.B., Liu, D.T., Zhang, P., 2021. Conservation Research of Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations (PSESP): Progress and future direction. In: Guihaia, 41, pp. 1605–1617. Thomas, E., Jalonen, R., Loo, J., Boshier, D., Gallo, L., Cavers, S., Bordács, S., Smith, P., Bozzano, M., 2014. Genetic considerations in ecosystem restoration using native tree species. For. Ecol. Manag. 333, 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.07.015. UNEP-WCMC, United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 2014. Biodiversity A-Z website: www.biodiversitya-z.org, Cambridge. https://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/megadiverse-countries. Volis, S., 2016. How to conserve threatened Chinese plant species with extremely small populations? Plant Divers. 38, 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pld.2016.05.003. Wang, S., Xie, Y., 2004. China Species Red List. In: Red List, 1. Higher Education Press,, Beijing. Wang, W., Feng, C., Liu, F., Li, J., 2020. Biodiversity conservation in China: A review of recent studies and practices. Environmental Science and Ecotechnology 2. Elsevier B.V,, pp. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ese.2020.100025. 22 Global Ecology and Conservation 35 (2022) e02101 J. Gratzfeld et al. Wen, X.Y., 2020. Integrated Conservation of Rare and Threatened Woody Plants: Practice of and Perspectives from BGCI Programs in China (2010-2020). China Forestry Publishing House. Xu, J., 2011. China’s new forests aren’t as green as they seem. Nature 477 (7365), 371. https://doi.org/10.1038/477371a. Xu, W., Xiao, Y., Zhang, J., Yang, W., Zhang, L., Hull, V., Wang, Z., Zheng, H., Liu, J., Polasky, S., Jiang, L., Xiao, Y., Shi, X., Rao, E., Lu, F., Wang, X., Daily, G.C., Ouyang, Z., 2017. Strengthening protected areas for biodiversity and ecosystem services in China. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 114 (7), 1601–1606. https://doi.org/ 10.1073/pnas.1620503114. Yang, J., Cai, L., Liu, D., Chen, G., Gratzfeld, J., Sun, W.B., 2020. China’s conservation program on plant species with extremely small populations (PSESP): progress and perspectives. Biol. Conserv. 1–9. Zastrow, M., 2019. China’s tree-planting could falter in a warming world. Nature 474–475. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-02789-w. Zhai, D.L., Xu, J.C., Dai, Z.C., Cannon, C.H., Grumbine, R.E., 2014. Increasing tree cover while losing diverse natural forests in tropical Hainan, China. Reg. Environ. Change 14 (2), 611–621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-013-0512-9. Zhang, Z., He, J.S., Li, J., Tang, Z., 2015. Distribution and conservation of threatened plants in China. Biol. Conserv. 192, 454–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biocon.2015.10.019. Zhang, Z., Guo, Y., He, J.S., Tang, Z., 2018. Conservation status of wild plant species with extremely small populations in China. Biodivers. Sci. 6, 572–577. https:// doi.org/10.17520/biods.2017271. 23